Indus valley civilization
Priyanka yadav
Introduction
• Indus valley civilization also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia.
• In 1921, Daya Ram sahni discovered the ruins of the ancient city of Harappa.
• The term 'Indus valley civilization' was first used by John Marshall . It is also known as 'Harappan civilization'.
• The indus valley civilization contemporary to Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and Chinese civilisation.
•The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind. Both places are now in Pakistan.
IVC( Indus valley civilisation) excavation in British Indian and Independence India
• The oldest record of Harappan ruin is first traced to the Charles Masson's book 'Narrative of various journeys in Baluchistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab' in 1842.
• Later R.D Banerjee excavated Mohenjo-daro in 1992 and then several historians discover several sites Kalibanga, Lothal, Sutkange-dor, Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Kot Diji in Sind etc.
• In independence India most important discovery was Stone Inscription and Indus signboard at Dholavira by R.S Bisht in 1990s.
• Another prominent discovery was Rakhigarhi site by Amrendra Nath in 1997. The recent excavation in Rakhigarhi by Vasant shinde in 2014 made it the largest site of Harappan civilisation, and spread over an area of 350 hectares.
Evolution of Indus valley civilization
Historians divided IVC evolution in four stages.
• The first period of IVC is called 'Pre-Harppa' which goes back to 3300 bce. This stage is located in eastern Baluchistan. The excavations
at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture. During this time, the nomadic people started living settled lives and picked agriculture.
• The second period of IVC is called 'Early Harappa'. The period between 3300 bce to 2600 bce. During this time, the people lived in large villages in the plains.There was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus valley. Also, the transition from rural to urban life took place during this period. The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for early-Harappan stage.
• The third period of IVC is called 'Mature Harappa'. It is referred to the period between 2600 bce to 1900 bce. During this time, great cities emerged, large urban centres flourished in the IVC. The excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban features prove this phase of evolution.
• The Fourth period of IVC is called ' Late Harappan' . The period between 1900 bce and 1300 bce. During this period the civilisation decline.
Salient features of Indus valley civilization
• Effective town planning of IVC is perhaps it's most striking characteristic.
• IVC town first major feature were stratified town planning. Most of IVC cities have fortified citadel in western part of city, which accommodated ruling class while the brick houses and in the easter part of cities accommodated commoners. This show their social stratifications.
Fortified citadel
Houses of commoners
• Second feature of IVC town planning were Grid System . IVC town planning based on the grid system. That is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks.
Grid system
• Third feature of IVC were underground Drainage system. Almost every houses of these cities was connected with network of the street drains and which were covered by stone slabs and bricks. And management of waste water in every houses.
Drainage system
Architecture
• The 'Great bath' at Mohenjo-daro is the most important architectural master piece of Indus valley civilization.
39 feel length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet
depth.
•Flights of steps at either end lead
to the surface.
•There are side rooms for changing clothes. • The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks.
• Water was drawn from large well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain.
• The 'Great Granary' is located at Mohenjo- daro. Measuring 150 length and 50 feet breadth.
• In the citadel of Harappa we find as many as six granaries.
• It is a brick structure built on a massive brick foundation over 45 meters north-south and 45 meters east-west.
Art and Craft
• The Harappan people also had well developed knowledge about variety of artifact's and sculpture.
• Craft making was common practice but most of the crafts making was in Chanhu-daro, Balakot, Nageshwar in industrial towns.
• Most famous stone sculpture is red sandstone sculpture of Indus valley civilization.
is red .
• Another famous sculpture of IVC is The Breaded Man.
• The trefoil pattern shawl on the sculpture indicates the existence of embroidery practice in the civilisation.
Bronze Casting
• Bronze Casting also popular in IVC and most famous bronze Casting is dancing girl from Mohenjo-daro.
• 4 inch tall bronze figure dancing girl in tribhanga posture.
• Her right arms four bangles, two at the wrist and two above the elbow.
• She wears a necklace with three large pendants.
• Her hair is in a loose bun.
• The terracotta figures were also found in the IVC sites. Most famous terracotta figures is Mother Goddess.
Seals
• Variety of seals made of terracotta, steatite, agate, chert, copper, faience, gold, ivory and silver have been recovered from excavated sites of IVC.
• Most popular seal are Mohenjo-daro Pashupati seal.
• It is a steatite seal.
• surrounded by a horned buffalo, a rhinoceros, an elephant, and a tiger.
Pottery Craft
•The pottery recovered from IVC sites are wheel made very few hand made.
• Plain pottery is more common than painted ware.
• On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock
• Red and Black ware pottery has been found in
abundance as compared to other potteries.
• Harappan were also aware of boat making craft and boats were used in sea trades with other civilisation.
• The Harappan also used standard weight measures which were in multiple of 16 units.
Political system
• According to theory of centralised polity historians argued that taking cue from the architectural magnificence and uniform beautiful sculptures, the historians believed that there were a centralised polity under a ruling class in indus valley civilization. They are capable for mobilized labour and taxes.
• The archaeologist identify citadel as a seat of power while the great granary of mohenjo-daro was assumed to be a state treasury. Texas collect in the form of grain.
• The political system of IVC reached its zenith in the mature Harappan phase, well developed cities.
• No evidence of an organized military was found from any of the sites.
• No archaeological evidence of temple has been found so far. They saw polity are secular and more important trade and commerce for people of IVC.
• According to an alternative theory, the polity of IVC was not centralised, instead the different Harappan cities were ruled by different rulers.
Economical system
• There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade.
•Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton. Surplus grain is stored in granaries.
•Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated.
•The use of horse is not yet firmly established.
•A number of other animals were hunted for food including deer.
• Evidence of a ploughed field, with two different kinds of furrows, at Early Harappan Kalibangan has shown that multiple cropping (the growing of two or more crops in the same field) was also practiced.
• Irrigation was a necessary requirement in farming.
• The only evidence of canals has been recovered from the site of Shortughai in Afghanistan.
Trade and commerce
• The evidence of seals, uniform script and the weight and measures shows the important of trade and commerce in this civilisation.
• Trade based on barter system.
• IVC commercial links has been traced upto Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the middle east.
• Internal trade was extensive with other parts of India.
•Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran Gold,
copper, tin and several semi-precious stones were imported.
• Mesopotamians used 'Melhua' for indus valley.
• Shortughai famous for lapis lazuli, Lothal carnelian trade, khetri copper mines, Afghanistan tin and silver import and south indian gold trade.
• The seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts
and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for river and sea transport.
•There is much evidence to proved the trade link between the indus and Sumerian people.
Social system
• In society probably had a well developed social hierarchy as it is reflected in the existence of citadel and lower town.
• Good quality seals or sculpture and poor quality terracotta figures also reflectes the existence of social differentiation.
• The dress of both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth, one upper garment and
the other lower garment.
• Beads were worn by men and women.
Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings and fingerrings were worn by women.
• These ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi precious stones.
• The use of cosmetics was common. Various household articles made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have been found at Mohenjodaro.
• Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made of copper. Children’s toys include little clay carts.
• Marbles, balls and dice were used for games. Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes.
• There were numerous specimens of weapons of war such as axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.
Religion
• From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we get an idea on the religious life of the Harappans.
• The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns.
• He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different
direction). Two deer appear on his feet.
• The chief female deity was the Mother
Goddess represented in terracotta figurines.
• In Trees and animals were also worshipped by the Harappans.
•They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.
Script
• Script largely pictographic.
•The number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants.
• The script was mostly written from right to left and then left to right .The writing style of Harappan script is called 'Boustrophedon'.
Burial Practices
• Three types of burial Practices were mainly prevalent in Harappan civilisation complete burial, fractional burial and the post- cremation burial.
• The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial practices of the Harappans.
• Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro.
• At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins.
• Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa.
• In Lothal double burial evidence male and femal were buried together in a coffin.
• Some burial evidence in IVC buried artefacts such as bangles, beads , pottery, etc this indicates that indus valley people might have believed in afterlife.
Decline of Indus valley civilization
• Some historians believe that the decline of Harappa civilisation was caused by climate change.
• Some expert believe the dying of the sarswati river.
• Decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the Harappan cities.
•The destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled together at Mohenjo-daro indicates that the city was invaded by foreigners.
• The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to become masters of this region.
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